Vanguard Magazine

28 OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2022 www.vanguardcanada.com Figure 1: US submarine operations in the Arctic Archipelago, 1958-1982, Source: Waldo K Lyon Papers ARCTIC alarm system but not hiring a policeman. As great-power competition increases and activity in the Arctic expands, Canada will need not only that improved surveillance but also the ability to respond to threats within its waters. The Arctic will be an important consid- eration when developing Canada's new submarine fleet. While the country will likely not seek to develop the full under-ice capabilities offered by nuclear propulsion, conventional submarines will still provide Canada with the ability to meaningfully contribute to the maritime element of northern continental defence, while offer- ing the government vital insights into what is transpiring above and below the waves in Canada's third Ocean. References: 1. Terrence J. O'Shaughnessy and Peter M. Fes- ler, "Hardening the Shield: A Credible Deter- rent & Capable Defense for North America," Wilson Center (September 2020), 5. 2. O'Shaughnessy and Fesler, 2. 3. John Honderich, Arctic Imperative: Is Canada Losing the North? (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987), 92. 4. See in: John B. Hattendorf and Peter M. Swartz eds. "The Maritime Strategy, 1984," US Naval Strategy in the 1980s: Selected Documents, Naval War College Newport Papers 33 (Newport: Naval War College Press, 2008). 5. This concern over key nodes is a key theme in O'Shaughnessy and Fesler, 15. On KH-101 range see: Mark Vermylen, "KH-101/102," MDAA (May 2017). 6. William M. Leary, Under Ice: Waldo Lyon and the Development of the Arctic Submarine (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1999), 109. 7. US Navy, "A Blue Arctic" (January 2021), 8. 8. For the best history of both projects see: Julie H. Ferguson, Through a Canadian Periscope, 2nd Edition (Toronto: Dundurn, 2014). 9. Tory Shepherd, "Australia's AUKUS Nuclear Submarines could Cost as much as $171bn, Report Finds," The Guardian (December 13, 2022). 10. On such criticisms see for instance: Michael Byers, Who Owns the Arctic? Understanding Sovereignty Disputes in the North (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 2010), 77 or Ken Coates et. al., Arctic Front: Defending Canadian Interests in the Far North (Toronto: Thomas Allen & Son Ltd., 2008), 153. 11. For an in-depth analysis of this trend see: Luke Copland et. al., "Changes in Shipping Naviga- bility in the Canadian Arctic between 1972 and 2016," Facets 7 (June 30, 2021). 12. Luca Peruzzi, "Leonardo's Black Scorpion Mini-Torpedo is on Track to Complete Quali- fication for Delivery to Customers," European Defence Review (July 22, 2020). 13. Herbert Nilsson, "Air Independent Propul- sion Systems for Autonomous Submarines," OCEANS '85: Ocean Engineering and the Environment, San Diego, November 14-15, 1985 (Piscataway, NJ: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1985), 42-55; Saab, "Submarines," Saab AB, https://saab.com/ naval/submarines-and-surface-ships/sub- marines/submarines/; Kockums, "Kockums Stirling AIP System," Kockums AB (November 19, 2009). 14. Canada, Standing Senate Committee on National Security and Defence, "Reinvesting in the Canadian Armed Forces: A Plan for the Future" (May 2017), 37, 39. 15. Phil Webster, "Arctic Sovereignty, Submarine Operations and Water Space Management," Canadian Naval Review 3:3 (Fall 2007), 14. 16. Andrea Charron and James Fergusson, "De- fending the Continent: NORAD Moderniza- tion and Beyond," CGAI (May 2022). 17. Charron and Fergusson. 18. Adam Lajeunesse, "A Very Practical Require- ment: Under-Ice Operations in the Canadian Arctic, 1960-1986," Cold War History 13:4 (November, 2013). 19. For the best history of this project see: Bruce Butler, Into the Labyrinth: The Making of a Modern-Day Theseus (Bigfoot Press, 2018). 20. Adam Lajeunesse, Lock, Stock, and Icebergs: The Evolution of Canada's Arctic Maritime Sovereignty (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2016), chapter 10. 21. On this work see: William Carruthers, "An Ar- ray of Blunders the Northern Watch Technol- ogy Demonstration Project," NIOBE Papers 1, Naval Association of Canada (January 2019). 22. Webster, 15. 23. Canada considered the Northwest Passage to be historic internal waters while the US believes that an international strait bisects the Arctic Islands, and that Canadian sovereignty extents only 12nm from each island. 24. This agreement is Permanent Joint Board of Defence Recommendation 52/1. For more see Lajeunesse, Lock, Stock, and Icebergs, 240- 241. 25. These being the voyages of SS Manhattan in 1969 and USCGS Polar Sea in 1985. 26. House of Commons, Minutes of Proceedings and Evidence of the Standing Committee on National Defence and Veterans Affairs (1987), 25:33. Reprinted with permission, Starshell, Sum- mer 2022, Issue 95, Naval Association of Canada Adam Lajeunesse, PhD, is the Irving Shipbuilding Chair in Canadian Arctic Marine Security Policy and an Assistant Professor at the Mulroney Institute of Government, St. Francis Xavier University. Timothy Choi is completing his Ph.D. at the University of Calgary's Centre for Military, Security and Strategic Studies, and is also a Research Fellow at Dalhousie University's Centre for the Study of Security and Development. He serves on the editorial board of and is the photo editor at the Canadian Naval Review.

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